Competency J

The process of information seeking and information retrieval is a complex, multi-faceted procedure that can vary widely by individuals and groups. Some may be satisfied with quick and simple answers, while others may require more in-depth and complex results. Because of this, it is of the utmost importance that information professionals understand the basic concepts, theories and models of information seeking behavior. If the information professional has a grasp of the basic concepts, they can help improve reference services and can better serve the community they represent.

Principle of Least Effort

In order to truly understand the behaviors and actions people take when searching for information, a brief understanding of information seeking theories and models must be known. There are many theories, but a good place to start is the Principle of Least Effort. This theory, first identified by George Zipf in 1949, stipulates that “each individual will adopt a course of action that will involve the expenditure of the probable least average of his work...the least effort” (Case, 2007, p. 151). This does not necessarily mean that people will do the easiest thing, rather, they will do the easiest thing for them. Basically, a person will use the things they are most familiar with and build upon that. Zipf presented this theory for linguistics and language use, and Case highlights that “humans tend to use short, common words whenever they can (leading to a highly frequent use of just a few words) rather than longer words that take more effort” (p. 152). This means that when seeking information, people tend to use words they are familiar and comfortable with, rather than more complex ones that may require more time to experiment with. This leads to simple searches based on just a few key terms. This is a practical approach and one that an information professional can build upon to assist with more complex searches.

Sense-Making

Another important method to understand is Brenda Dervin’s concept of sense-making. Dervin highlights how a searcher attempts to make sense of, and interpret, information so that it can be used for their own needs. Kundu states that this theory is “... a set of assumptions, a theoretic perspective, a methodological approach, a set of research methods, and a practice designed to cope with information perceived as a human tool designed for making sense of a reality assumed to be both chaotic and orderly” (2017, p. 395). Sense-making focuses more on the perspective of the searcher through dialog and verbings, and how the use of information is unending in an attempt to make sense of their surroundings. There are four crucial elements to the method: situation, gap, bridge and outcome. The situation element consists of the task. The gap identifies the consequences of the sense-making process, or the difference between the contextual situation and the desired outcome. The bridge is the information used to make sense of the gap, and the outcome occurs when the information is used to complete the situation. Since everyone experiences the world differently, this holistic concept allows one to create meaning, and therefore allows information to be placed into context they can understand and make sense of.

Information Search Process

Perhaps the most famous theory and model regarding information seeking behavior is the Information Search Process by Carol Kuhlthau. Developed in 1991, the model focuses on the feelings, thoughts and actions of the searcher. The process is broken down into six stages: initiation, selection, exploration, formulation, collection and search closure. Each stage is related to the searcher’s emotional state. Khazer and Ganaie, explain that Kuhlthau “relates Anxiety with the recognition of uncertainty at the first stage i.e. Initiation. The other five stages and related emotional states (listed in parenthesis) are: Selection (optimism), Exploration (confusion / frustration / doubt), Formulation (clarity), Collection (confidence) and Presentation (relief / satisfaction or disappointment)” (2017, p. 4). The model can be explored in two categories, based on thought. The first three stages occur when the cognitive thoughts are still vague, and the latter three materialize when the thoughts become more focused.

Initiation, selection and exploration share a vague and general idea of what the searcher needs or wants. In the initiation stage, a feeling of uncertainty and apprehension is expressed, as the person is unsure of what information is needed. The second stage, selection, brings on a feeling of optimism. In this stage, the person has selected a topic and now has a general idea of how to proceed, though there may still be some confusion or anxiety. Next, the exploration stage can also be thought of as a pre-focus exploration stage. Kuhlthau considers this the most difficult, and perhaps the most crucial, stage. Here, “information seekers become confused when they encounter ‘inconsistent or incompatible’ information. It is at this point that information seekers may become discouraged, express feelings of doubt and plan of abandoning their search process (Kundu, p. 399). The Principle of Least Effort can come into play here, as searchers will try to relate what they know to what they are searching for.

Formulation, collection and presentation make up the second category, and they begin to offer a more focused thought process. The fourth stage, formulation, brings about a feeling of clarity for the searcher. The information is evaluated and begins to be constructed, and consequently the searcher starts to experience some confidence, marking a turning point in the process. The collection stage comes next, where the searcher begins to gather relevant information on their topic. The previous feelings of uncertainty further diminish. In the sixth and final stage, presentation, the searcher completes the search and prepares to present the information. This stage brings about either satisfaction or disappointment. “They experience relief and a sense of satisfaction if the search process is successful or disappointed if they feel that the search was a failure” (Kundu, p. 399). Whether or not the individual feels satisfied, the search process is closed, and a new process begins.